CHAPTER II. The Egyptian Language and Writing. — The Dwellers on the Nile: Chapters on the Life, History, Religion, and Literature of the Ancient Egyptians (E. A. Wallis Budge (1885))

The Egyptians used a variety of substances for writing upon, such as stone, wood, leather, Hnen, and papyrus. When stone of any sort was used for this purpose the characters were cut into it with a chisel : and many of the inscriptions upon sandstone and the like were filled in with the most beautiful colours. Unfortunately, however, much of tlie colour has disappeared and now, in many cases, only traces of it can be seen. In the better class of sculptures the details of the object represented are most carefully carved, and some characters are cut into the stone to the depth of nearly an inch. In the case of wood, the characters are sometimes cut as in stone, and sometimes merely painted.

Papyrus was the material which was in the greatest demand for making copies of the Book of the Dead, literary compositions, and official documents. The plant grew in Upper Egypt, the Delta, and other parts of the country. To fit it for writing purposes the interior of the stalks were cut into thin slices in the direction of their length ; these were laid on a board in a row, and similar slices were placed upon them at

THE EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING. 4 1

right angles ; and when their surfaces had been joined by a kind of gum or glue, and pressed and dried, the papyrus was complete.^ Inscribed papyri are of different widths, viz., six, eleven, twelve and a half, thirteen and even fourteen and a half inches ; while their length varies from a few inches to one hundred and fifty feet.^

The scribe wrote on papyrus with a reed, the hieroglyphs being generally traced in outline. He carried his inks in small hollows in his palette. The greater part of the ordinary inscriptions on papyrus are written with black ink, but directions for the repetition of certain passages or rubrics, and the initial paragraphs, are written with red. Texts written in other colours are found, but they are not common. Where it was possible the scribe represented an object in its natural colour ; he made the sun red, the moon yellow, trees, plants, and all vegetables, green ; but objects requiring out of the way colours were not so well done, owing to the comparatively limited supply of colours at the disposal of the scribe. Reeds cut like modern pens were also used for writing, and specimens of these may be seen in the British Museum (North Gallery, 2nd Egyptian Room).

The scribe's palettes were made of wood, ivory, and stone ; they were of different lengths and widths, varying from five or six inches to twenty in length, and from two to three inches in breadth. They were frequently

^ Wilkinson's 'Ancient Egyptians,' ii. p. 180.

" Dr. Birch, in Willcinson's ' Ancient Egyptians,' ii. p. 182 ; Bunsen's ' Egypt,' V. p. 590.

42 THE DWELLERS ON THE NILE.

inscribed, and at times the characters were most beautifully inlaid with lapis lazuli. There is an oblong hollow in them wherein the writing reeds may be placed ; and at the end are generally shallow holes for the ink, traces of which, of a red and black colour, still remain in some of them. Palettes are sometimes dedicated to the god Thoth, and the British Museum possesses among others one which originally belonged to a scribe of the time of Amenophis III. (about B.C. 1500), and one of a scribe who lived in the time of Rameses II. (about B.C. 1350). In this latter, five of the scribe's reeds still remain. The office of scribe was very important, and was generally held by a person belonging to the priestly or first caste of Egyptians.^

The hierogylphics may be divided into two classes : (i) those representing ideas, and (2) those used for sounds.

For example, the picture of an obelisk, 11, expressed

that object ; \\> a vulture, expressed that bird ; and so

on. Sometimes, however, the cause was put for the effect,

and the reverse : thus Ma palette and reed, represented

* writing ' (also ' scribe ') ; and "^J^, dishevelled liair, stood for ' grieving,' because the hair was disturbed and uncared for in a time of trouble. It will be readily understood that the ideographic part of the writing is much older than the phonetic ; and in the very early texts we find the use of ideographs greater than in those of a later period.

' Wilkinson's 'Ancient Egyptians,' i. p. 157.

THE EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING. 43

This is what one would expect, because all nations use a pictorial language long before they come to phonetics. The pictorial method of representation in the texts is exceedingly useful, for it frequently suggests the right meaning of a word ; and wherji new words are found phonetically spelt, but without ideographs, it is often difficult to find out what they mean. An ideograph was often repeated three or more times, to express the

plural, thus: — e e e 'bones,' umu Moors,' | | ] 'gods,' "^"^"^ 'glorified souls,' jj jj jj 'seats,' ^:^^^^^ 'roads,' and 111111111111111111 'the two cycles of the gods.' It must be mentioned that every hieroglyph could be used to express the sound of the object which it represented.^ Custom, however, set aside a certain number which were used to express the sounds of other objects. For example ^'^isl represents a ' plough,' and <ci=> a 'mouth,' but ^^ means 'beloved ;' <=> represents a 'mouth,' and ^^^^^ 'water'; but <^=^ means 'name.'

Under the class of phonetics must also be mentioned those which have syllabic values, such as ""^^sl 7/ier, ^ /ie7n, and ^^3^ ned. A large number of these are used as determinative of sound : for example, the value of H- is ^/ix, but we find •;:^ -?-, i.e., d-n-x + the syllable

-?-;also '^-2- i.e., d-u -F the syllable Y-, and so on.

1 Dr. Birch, in Bunsen's ' Egypt,' v. p. 597.

Certain hieroglyphs were used as Determinatives^ By a Determinative is meant a sign which represents the idea, either directly or indirectly, of the word written ; and a determinative could be placed either before or after a word. For example, in the word for * child,'

<c=^> ^ %^^A the first three signs give the word for child, and then follows the determinative, which is the

picture of a child ; the word

i—^v-i ap8, means

'tortoise;' but it is written in the texts with the

picture for 'tortoise ' after it ; so, ""g "^^^ «^§. The few following words will illustrate the way in which the phonetic signs and ideographs are employed in writing words : —

AWAAA

MJl

sesh

tart

man

Dienfat

qerJin

ubn

ana

enisuh

hfi

.. bird's nest. .. scorpion. . . cat.

soldier.

night. . . to shine. .. ox. .. crocodile. . . worm.

THE EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING.

fl +

5^1;^

md')(ait ..

pair of sc

ales.

. bee.

cidh

. moon.

addni

. ape.

iierdu

. vulture.

The number of hieroglyphic signs may be considered to be about two thousand, and a short list of the commoner phonetics is as follows : —

- — fl d

1 b

h (or kh)

W i

V x6 k

S k

I W I

s (or sJi)

The arrangement of the hieroglyphics in inscriptions varies, but generally they face to the right, and are read from right to left like Arabic, Syriac, Hebrew, etc. Sometimes they face to the left, and are to be read from left to right ; but very often they are arranged in perpendicular rows, with carefully drawn lines separating

46 THE DWELLERS ON THE NILE.

each row. Instances have occurred where the characters face in one direction, but are to be read in the other.

The hieroglyphics were particularly useful for the purpose of ornament ; and when each hieroglyphic is painted in the colours which most nearly resembles the object which it represents, the effect is vivid and gorgeous. The scribe or mason frequently sacrificed the strict order of the letters in a word to his love of symmetrical arrangement : in the papyri, however, the right order is usually kept. For an example of the ornamental effect produced by a collection of hieroglyphs, see the extract from the text inscribed upon the Pyramid of Pepi, printed round pages i lo, in : and the following is a specimen of Egyptian with interlinear transliteration, and literal translation.

Specimen of Interlinear Transliteration AND Translation.^

au arna hesest ret hereret nutaru heres Done Jiave I behests of men and the ivill of the gods ;

au ta - na ta en heqr sesau - na

wherefore giveji have I bread to the Jinngry^ satiated have I

t: ^\ Jfl^— 12. ^ ^ ^ ^^, atet au ses - na nutar em pa - f an

the indigent, follozved have I the god in house his, not

'* See 'Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch.,' vol. viii. p. 309.

THE EGVPTIAX LANGUAGE AND WRITING. 47

aa re -a em s'enit an

JiatJi magnified mouth viy against s7iperior officers^ not is

pet em nemt - a sem - a her sa %ent

tJiej-e stretch in stride my, walk I according to measure.

ar - na em mat mer en suten

Done have I law beloved by the king^

re;)^ - kua entet utu - nef set res - na knezv I zvhat commanded Jie it, watched I

her ast - a er seqa baiu - f tua - na tua - f at seat my to exalt will his, rose I for ivorship his

hru neb er ta - na ab - a %enti t'et - f

day every, gave I heart my to what said he

an mahi her sa - nef ;)^er - a

without hesitating at luhat determined he ''^^^ J^^^J'^'^^^'

48 THE DWELLERS ON THE NH.E.

f=iSi

t:2^

tet - na metrit (?) hna metit

^ook I uprightness and fairness y

peh ' na enen her kar - a qebeb hesna - ua

arrived I at what was for silence, refreshing, favoured nte

rl I AATTNAA T ^LL

neb -a her men^-a niaa-nef rut

lord the kiiig my for beneficence ;;/;', saw he that vigorous

1^ \\^ ^^ nrllh J^

aa - a an ab - a se^enti ast - a

were hands my through heart my advancing seat my.

Hieroglyphics were employed for inscriptions on public monuments, etc., but two other characters of writing are found, the hieratic, and the demotic or enchorial ; this latter is not comparatively very ancient, and a specimen of it is given in the reproduction of the Rosetta Stone p. 20. The hieratic was the cursive hand, and was much used by the priests in making their reports of government transactions, and in writing down literary compositions. It was taken from the hieroglyphic, as the following example, with the hieroglyphic transcription beneath, will show.

THE EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING.

J^i}^^/M^iU

Hieratic Writing.^

Transcription.

AA/WV\ 1-A

3- P'T::il^^M:-»-r-^°-°'

To what group or family of languages Egyptian belongs, is at present an undecided point : there is a great influx of Semitic words about 1400 B.C. ; for further information on this subject the reader is referred to the works of Benfey, Lepsius, Brugsch, Renan, and others.

^ See Birch, * Select Papyri in the Hieratic Character,' Part II, pi. xi, page 5, line 9, and page 6, line i. The hieratic text is written from right to left, but the hieroglyphs read the opposite way.